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Steven Welch / Charles Zika |
German History in Australian Universities: an Overview
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<1>
The teaching and writing of German History in Australian universities
reflects the more general history of the profession over the last
half century. [1] Although history was a foundation
discipline in Australian universities when they were established in
the second half of the nineteenth century, only in the second half
of the twentieth century with post World War II expansion was a history
profession created within the university environment. This brought
with it much greater specialisation in teaching and research, especially
in the field of European, Asian, North American and Pacific history,
as well as the creation of sub-disciplines such as archeology, classical
history, economic history and the history of science. |
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<2>
The expansion also involved a systematic approach to postgraduate
training and research, and a growing emphasis on research and publication
on the part of academic staff. In the mid-1950s there were seven history
departments employing about 60 historians; ten years later there were
ten departments with 150 staff; ten years after that, in the mid 1970s,
sixteen departments numbered 320 tenured lecturing staff; and it has
been estimated that together with temporary lecturers and tutors,
and historians in departments of Economic History, Classics, Education,
and so on, 750 historians were employed in Australian universities
by the early 1970s. And student numbers in undergraduate history increased
correspondingly, rising from 30.000 in 1945 to 200.000 in 1973. |
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<3>
As part of the post World War II expansion of the university sector,
and especially the establishment of new universities and a dramatic
increase in the number of students and staff in the 1960s and 1970s,
specialization in the teaching of European history followed. [2]
Prior to World War II, modern European history had been taught as
an extension of British History; now lectureships specifically dedicated
to German History, or at least to European History on the understanding
that some teaching subjects would focus on German History, began to
be filled, and especially in the older universities. |
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<4>
A political interest in German History had already been evident in
the work of earlier teachers, such as Stephen Roberts, who held the
chair of history in Sydney between 1929 and 1947; [3]
but the adoption of German History was clearly assisted by the migration
of refugees and displaced persons to Australia before, during and
after World War II, which included a number of prominent scholars
of German history and culture. [4] And with the increased
resourcing of local and international scholarships at Australian universities
from the 1960s, Australian students such as John Foster of the University
of Melbourne and John Moses of the University of Queensland, the leading
light of modern German scholarship in Australia for a generation,
were able to go on to European universities to do their postgraduate
studies and then return to teach in Australia. [5]
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<5>
Since the 1980s the number of historians at Australian universities
has begun to decline. By 1989 the number of history staff was reduced
to 451; by 1995 it was 410. [6] The current estimation
is ‘closer to 300’. [7] This has been
complicated by the fact that in the newer Universities established
after 1975, stand-alone history departments were not found: history
programmes were sometimes maintained in larger humanities clusters,
or a small number of historians were employed to teach history as
well as other disciplines, such as sociology, religion, gender or
tourism, in large multidisciplinary schools or departments. |
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<6>
Moreover, the established history departments at the older universities
have been reduced, and in many cases have been combined with more
or less cognate disciplines, such as art history or gender studies
or politics. Queensland has been cut from 27 academic staff in 1988
to 19; Macquarie from 28 to 14; Sydney from 41 to the low 20s. [8]
Moreover, there has been a proliferation of ‘studies areas’,
such as American Studies, Australian Studies, Gender Studies, Jewish
Studies, and of course European Studies – sometimes in an attempt
to achieve ‘rationalization’ and cost cutting, but often
in line with a broader intellectual shift to cross- and trans-disciplinary
teaching and research. As a result, although the research and teaching
of German history are still primarily found in history departments
or programmes, they may also be found in European Studies, in Cinema
Studies, in Music, and of course in German Language and Literature
or German Studies programmes. And in the case of the teaching of earlier
periods of German history, the German Reformation might be located
in Theology, Church History or Religious Studies. |
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Website of the 'University of Sydney' |
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Undergraduate Teaching |
<7>
In 2002 asmall number of history departments were still offering dedicated
German History subjects. [9] The overwhelming concentration
is on the twentieth century, and more specifically on the Nazi period,
the Second World War and the Holocaust. But there is also some attention
given to the postwar period and the nineteenth century. The University
of Queensland offers two subjects with the titles, ‘Germany
from Bismarck to Hitler’ (40), [10] and ‘Germany
from Hitler to Unification’ (60); while a substantial German
component is found in ‘The Radical Right and Fascism in Europe’
(25) and ‘European Thought in the Age of Modernism’ (7).
Sydney University lists two subjects dedicated to German History,
one on the nineteenth century and another on the twentieth century
(each 25); while it also offers a subject on the Holocaust. Latrobe
University offers a subject on ‘Hitler and the Third Reich’
(80); and also includes a component on the Berlin Olympics in a subject
on the history of sport. The University of New England offers ‘Germany
1888-1939’ (60) and includes German materials as part of ‘Europe
in Turmoil and Transition, 1871-1991’ (60) and ‘The Experience
of War, 1569-1991’. The University of Melbourne offers ‘Hitler’s
Germany’ (150) and ‘The Rise and Fall of the German Empire’
(50); and for the earlier period, it has ‘German Society and
Culture (1450-1750)’ (30), and a subject taught in intensive
mode on-site in Germany, ‘Medieval and Renaissance Nuremberg’
(20). Melbourne also teaches other subjects with a strong German History
content, such as ‘The Holocaust and Genocide’ (80), ‘Screening
the Holocaust’ (60), ‘Total War in Europe: World War I’
(120) and ‘Total War in Europe: World War II’ (115), ‘Witches
and Witch-Hunting in European Societies’ (90), and (through
the United Faculty of Theology) ‘The Radical Reformation’
(20). |
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Website of the 'University of Queensland' |
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<8>
Many other history departments teach subjects with a substantial German
component. The History Department of the University of Western Australia,
for instance, teaches a large first-year subject ‘Hitler, the
Holocaust and the Historians’ (140) and ‘European Fascism’
(80); at Wollongong University History offers a subject entitled ‘War,
Dictatorship and Propaganda 1918-1945’; History at Macquarie
University offers topics related to German history in ‘The World
since 1945’, in ‘European History 1789-1914’, and
in ‘20th-Century Europe’. History at the University of
New South Wales offers two units on ‘Twentieth-Century European
History’; while at the ANU (Australian National University),
History lists ‘World at War 1939-1945’ and ‘Technology
and Society, 1800-2000’, the second of which includes an exploration
of German attitudes to technology in Weimar and Nazi Germany. |
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<9>
The ANU demonstrates how German history at Australian universities
is by no means exclusively taught in History departments. At the ANU
two German History subjects are taught as part of the European Studies
programme: ‘The German-Jewish Experience’ (20) and ‘German
Revolutions?’ (35); whereas several other subjects have substantial
German components: ‘The Attractions of Fascism’ (30);
‘The New Europe – “A Divided Germany in a Divided
Europe”’ (100); ‘The New Europe B – “The
Process and Impact of German Unification”’. And in the
School of Language Studies, subjects are offered on ‘Postwar
German Society’ (15), on ‘German Cinema’ (30) and
on a host of German literary subjects; whereas Art History offers
a subject on ‘German Expressionism’ (10). |
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Website of the 'Australian National University' (ANU) |
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<10>
Likewise, at the University of Western Australia, History offerings
are complemented by five units with a strong historical focus taught
in the European Studies programme and some of them in German. At Adelaide
University, German History is also a strong component of the European
Studies programme and includes subjects on ‘German-speaking
Jewish writers in German-speaking countries (Crusades to the present)’
(20); ‘German-speaking countries in 2001’ (20); ‘History
of German film since 1920’ (30); ‘1848 - 1945: social
and cultural history’. Other subjects concern German researchers
in the South Seas, German views of Australia in the nineteenth century,
and a history of German song and German opera. The Politics department
also teaches ‘Fascism and Anti-Fascism’ (50) and Germany
and Austria in Europe (25). The School of International Studies at
Deakin University teaches two units on the Holocaust; while the School
of Liberal Arts at Newcastle University offers two modern history
subjects with a strong German component: ‘Fascism, War and Genocide’
(40) and ‘Modern European History’ (70). At the University
of Melbourne, the strong German History programme in the History Department
is complemented by subjects offered by the German Studies programme
in the School of Languages, and the Faculty of Music, with specialist
subjects on ‘Baroque Music of the German Speaking Lands’.
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<11>
As the above overview shows, the teaching of German history in Australian
universities is strongly concentrated in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. Apart from the subjects listed above for History at the
University of Melbourne, there are no dedicated German History subjects
for the period prior to 1750. However there is some concentrated teaching
of the German Reformation in a subject at the University of Western
Australia, ‘Reformation Europe’ (30); while German history
also features in general subjects on early modern Europe offered at
Macquarie, Adelaide, the University of New South Wales, and the University
of New England. Some earlier German history is also represented in
the teaching of late antiquity and medieval history – at Queensland,
Macquarie, Sydney, Monash and Melbourne. The concentration here is
on late antiquity, the Carolingian Empire, the Hohenstaufen, monastic
culture in the high Middle Ages, but such topics are generally covered
within broad medieval history courses. |
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<12>
Whereas some undergraduate courses a decade ago focused more specifically
on topics in medieval and Reformation German history, these have disappeared
or at best been incorporated into more generalist European courses.
The tendency is indeed similar to that for the modern period, where
many departments no longer believe that subjects which focus on a
single European state or culture are tenable, on grounds of restricted
funding, library resources and student interest. However, unlike the
modern period, for which the teaching of German history within a broader
continental European field was probably only second to French history
over the last three to four decades, medieval German history has lagged
well behind the teaching of French and Italian (especially Renaissance)
as well as English history. And the teaching of German Reformation
history, despite Australia’s considerable international reputation
in that field, [11] has been traditionally taught
more in terms of intellectual and church history, and as with early
modern German history, is considerably overshadowed by the teaching
of early modern French and especially British history. |
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Professional Organization, Conferences Networks |
<13>
There is no organisation of professional historians in Australia dedicated
exclusively to the field of German History. Historians of Germany
are, however, strongly represented within the Australasian Association
of European Historians. The Association, founded in 1969, has held
thirteen biennial conferences; the next conference is scheduled for
2003 in Brisbane. The proceedings from several of the previous conferences
have been published. [12] The most recent conference
in Auckland focused specifically on modern German history and several
of the papers from this conference have been published in a special
edition of the ‘Australian Journal of Politics and History’.
[13] |
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<14>
Historians of the earlier period were represented by the Australasian
Historians of Medieval and Early Modern Europe, which held regular
biennial conferences from 1971. In 1996 they combined with an association
of mainly literature and language scholars to form the multi-disciplinary
Australian and New Zealand Association of Medieval and Early Modern
Studies, partly in response to a gradual decline in numbers. Such
conferences help galvanize research and collaboration, and also provide
funding to bring scholars of earlier European (including German) history
to Australia on a regular basis. |
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<15>
Through research grants from the Australian Research Council, from
individual universities and from foundations, academic staff from
Australian universities is able to carry out research projects in
Germany. Connections to colleagues and institutions in Germany are
developed and cultivated as a result of these contacts. Three Australian
universities – University of Queensland, University of New South
Wales, and the University of Melbourne – and the University
of Freiburg in Germany are members of the international consortium
Universitas 21. [14] Plans are being developed for
staff and postgraduate exchanges between the Australian partners and
the University of Freiburg. |
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Website of the 'Universitas 21' |
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<16>
Themes and topics of contemporary German history are given substantial
attention in the research programs, seminar series and conferences
run by the three key European centres in Australia. The Contemporary
Europe Research Centre (CERC) at the University of Melbourne sponsors
several thematic conferences each year and these invariably include
German topics and guest academics from Germany. [15]
The recently created National Europe Centre in Canberra has as its
central focus Australia-European Union relations; this naturally entails
considerable attention to Germany’s pivotal role in the EU and
to contemporary German history. [16] Professor John
Millful’s Centre for European Studies at the University of New
South Wales in Sydney has been especially active in the field of modern
German history. [17] Through conferences, seminars
and lectures featuring visiting German scholars, the Sydney Centre
has been a major promoter of the study of twentieth-century German
history. |
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Website of the 'National Europe Centre Autralia' |
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<17>
Visiting scholars programs at various universities also facilitate
regular contact between Germany and Australia. The Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft
and the Goethe Institut have been instrumental in helping to finance
these exchanges. Postgraduate research in Germany has been aided by
fellowships from the Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst, while the
Humboldt Stiftung has financed advanced research for academic staff. |
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Website of the 'Centre for European Studies' |
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Research |
<18>
Postgraduate research in German history is confined primarily to the
larger institutions (University of Queensland, University of Melbourne,
University of New South Wales, University of Sydney, University of
Adelaide and University of Western Australia). Based on our survey
results, the overwhelming majority – about 75% – of postgraduate
research focuses on topics in the field of modern German history (replicating,
not surprisingly, the heavy concentration on this period in the undergraduate
curriculum). Within the modern period twentieth-century topics predominate. |
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Website of the 'University of Melbourne' |
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<19>
Among the current topics being researched are the following: Otloh
of Emmeram , Hildegard of Bingen, the grotesque body in sixteenth-century
German visual culture, saints and devils in the German Reformation,
the reception of Ficino’s work in Germany to 1550, German colonialism
in Southwest Africa, the Transsylvanian Germans, ‘Sippenhaft’
in the Third Reich, women and military service in Nazi Germany, German
women’s survival strategies in 1945, German-Jewish emigration
to Australia, National Socialist activity in Australia, the German
minority in Yugoslavia in World War II, Peter Handke and the Serbian
issue, and the foreign policy of the Greens. |
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<20>
A significant hindrance to postgraduate research in the field is the
relative dearth of German language skills among Australian university
students. The absence of language requirements at Australian universities
means that very few students acquire the basic proficiency necessary
for advanced research. A shortage of funding for conducting archival
and library research in Germany also makes it difficult to increase
postgraduate numbers in German history. |
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Website of the 'University of New South Wales' |
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<21>
The major research focus for academic staff is nineteenth- and twentieth-century
German history. Nearly 70% of the current research topics reported
by our survey respondents are in this area. Medieval topics constitute
about 13% and early modern topics about 17% of the total. Among the
current topics or areas being researched are the following: Graeco-Roman
rhetoric in German lands during the medieval and Renaissance periods;
twelfth-century German monastic and intellectual history; music at
the Dresden court 1700-1750; Argula von Gumbach and the Reformation;
visual images of witchcraft; Shylock on the German stage 1870-1945;
history of the German labour movement; 1936 Olympics; ‘Heimat’;
German deserters in World War Two; the crime of ‘Wehrkraftzersetzung’;
the Churches and resistance movements in Nazi Germany; Holocaust;
post-1945 intellectual history; and Catholic student associations
in Cologne and Halle 1950s-70s. |
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<22>
Historians of Germany in Australia are quite cognisant of the historiographical
debates generated by their colleagues in Germany and elsewhere. From
the Fischer debate of the 1960s and 1970s and the ‘Historikerstreit’
of the late 1980s through the Goldhagen controversy, the debate surrounding
the recent exhibition ‘War of Extermination: The Crimes of the
Wehrmacht 1941-1944’and the contested establishment of a Holocaust
memorial in Berlin, the key controversies have been taken up and incorporated
into teaching and research agendas. It seems likely that increased
internet access has made it easier over the past decade for Australian
historians in the field to keep abreast of the concerns and the ‘hot
topics’ of the moment, and international lists such as H-German
and others have undoubtedly facilitated communication with overseas
colleagues in the field and more rapid reception of current topics
of interest. When it comes to issues and debates related to the institutional
setting of tertiary history teaching at German universities, such
as the ‘Hochschulrahmengesetz’, our suspicion is that
these have sparked little interest here in Australia. |
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Website of the 'University of Adelaide' |
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<23>
Within the field of German history in Australia there has been no
complement to the ‘Historikerstreit’ of the late 1980s.
In the 1990s two issues which were directly related to the field of
German history did generate public attention and controversy. The
first involved attempts to try alleged World War Two war criminals
living in Australia. Historians played an important role in the general
political and social debate about the desirability and purpose of
such trials, and in providing historical information about the nature
and extent of wartime atrocities. |
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<24>
The second was the so-called Demidenko affair which centred on a prize-winning
novel, purportedly based on historical fact, which presented an account
of the Holocaust from a Ukrainian perspective. [18]
The anti-Semitic nature of the book’s content, its historical
inaccuracies and later revelations that the author had fabricated
her own family background and name (she was of British not Ukrainian
background and was named Darville not Demidenko) caused a public scandal.
Historians, as well as scholars from other disciplines, contributed
significantly to the public debate about the novel and in the process
brought into the public arena some of the results of recent scholarly
research on the Holocaust and its perpetrators. |
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Website of the 'University of Western Australia' |
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<25>
As both of these examples indicate, issues related to Nazism and the
Holocaust continue to attract significant public interest. Without
a doubt, the Third Reich is the historical period which dominates
public perceptions about German history, draws the largest number
of students at undergraduate level in the universities and attracts
the lion’s share of research attention among postgraduates and
academic historians. |
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The Future? |
<26>
The respondents to our survey offered a variety of perspectives in
answer to the question: what are your views about the future of German
history at Australian universities? |
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<27>
“Probably even bleaker than the future of history
in general or physics.
One problem will be the incorporation of Germany into the EU. Germany
is disappearing from sight, and memory of and interest in twentieth-century
German activities may be difficult to sustain.” |
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<28>
“Under the present regime we will be lucky
to maintain ‘history’ as a subject! The present Vice Chancellor
considers history (and told a newspaper that it is) a ‘luxury’
subject! No attraction!… Universities should be teaching German
language and German history courses! But it will not happen under
this present system…Tertiary education has been commodified
into dollars and cents!” |
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<29>
“[The future looks] good: Nazis always a popular
topic, but beyond that?” |
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<30>
“There seems to be a continuing interest in
modern German history, especially in relation to the Nazi period.
However, the demise of language study, especially German, is a threat
to serious postgraduate research.” |
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<31>
“[German history] will survive because it is
such a mainstream aspect of European history, which is very popular.” |
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<32>
“Given the intense interest in twentieth-century
Germany, I think the future of German history is pretty rosy.” |
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<33>
“Thanks to Hitler even our language students
in the Business German stream and the translation classes ask for
‘historical’ digressions.” |
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<34>
“[German history will become] part of European
and/or thematic history units. No single European state or culture
has the drawing power at present to form the basis of a stand-alone
unit.” |
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<35>
“The future is probably nil in departments
of German or their equivalent, for, as their staff numbers fall rapidly,
ever more ‘options’ are deleted from course offerings
and we revert to the old-style lecture because of student numbers.” |
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<36>
There seem to be three discernible trends. First, at a number of institutions,
especially smaller or regional universities, German History has already
disappeared or appears likely to disappear from the curriculum. Second,
at some other institutions it is gradually being absorbed into broader
European History or European Studies programmes; one can speculate
that as a result its profile is bound to diminish in this context.
Third, at several of the larger universities the future looks brighter;
new appointments in German History at Sydney and Monash provide some
grounds for optimism, as do continued high enrolments in German history
subjects at several other universities. |
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<37>
As many of our colleagues emphasised in their survey responses there
are several major difficulties facing the field. The lack of adequate
language training reduces the number of students capable of carrying
out significant postgraduate research, and this carries with it disturbing
prospects for the future staffing in the field. Staff reductions,
such as those outlined in the first part of this article, continue
to be a major concern. As Arts Faculties shed staff in order to balance
their budgets, the field of German history is under threat at a number
of institutions. Reductions in library budgets and the rising cost
of serials and books mean that maintaining adequate collections becomes
increasingly difficult. This in turn is related to the general crisis
in university funding, a crisis likely to be exacerbated rather than
resolved by the current conservative Australian government. |
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Notes |
| [1]
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For the following see: Stuart Macintyre:
History, in: Challenges for the Social Sciences and Australia,
vol. 1, prepared by the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia,
Canberra 1998, 129-40; Stuart Macintyre: History in a New Country:
Australians Debate their Past (unpublished paper); Geoffrey
Serle: The State of the Profession in Australia, in: Australia
Historical Studies 15 (1973), 686-702; Brian Crozier: History
and the Community: 3. The Historical Community; or, Seeing the
Whole Elephant, in: Australian Historical Association Bulletin
59-60 (1989), 53-54. |
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For the below, see John Moses: The Doing of
Modern European History in Australasia, in: Australian Journal
of Politics and History supplementary edition (1988), (3)-20. |
| [3] |
Stephen Roberts: The House that Hitler Built,
London 1937, which was later translated into Czech, Dutch, Swedish,
Danish and German. See Moses: The Doing of Modern European History,
5-7. |
| [4] |
Moses: The Doing of Modern European History,
7-8, names Ernest Bramsted, Eugene Kamenka, George Kertesz,
and for New Zealand, Peter Munz and Carl Popper. |
| [5] |
For John Foster, who went to Tübingen and
Swansea, see Mark Baker (ed.): History on the edge: essays in
memory of John Foster (1944-1994), Parkville, Victoria: Department
of History, University of Melbourne 1997. 1-6 (Introduction),
318-28 (Appendix: Eulogies); for John Moses, who went to Munich
and Erlangen, see Andrew Bonnell, Gregory Munro / Martin Travers
(eds.): Power, conscience and opposition: essays in German history
in honour of John A. Moses, New York 1996. x-xiv (Preface). |
| [6] |
Crozier: History and the Community; Norman Etherington,
Tom Stannage, and Julie Londey: So you want to study…History,
Canberra 1995. |
| [7] |
Macintyre: History in a New Country. |
| [8] |
Macintyre: History in a New Country, 131. |
| [9] |
The following information relies on responses
to a questionnaire circulated in 2002 to 83 university staff
in Australian universities, which resulted in 35 replies. Though
the results are by no means comprehensive, they are strongly
indicative of trends in the research and teaching of German
history in Australia. |
| [10] |
Where numbers in brackets appear after the titles
of subjects, this represents the average student enrolment in
these subjects as claimed in answers to the questionnaire. |
| [11] |
The reference is to the high international regard
for the work of two Australian leaders in the fields of German
Reformation and Early Modern German History: Bob Scribner (1941-1998),
of Cambridge and later Harvard, a graduate of Sydney University;
and Lyndal Roper, of London and more recently Oxford, a graduate
of the University of Melbourne. |
| [12] |
For example, John Perkins / Jürgen Tampke
(eds.): Europe: Retrospects and Prospects: Proceedings of the
1995 Biennial Conference of the Australasian Association of
European Historians, Manly East, NSW 1996. Peter Monteath /
Fredric Scott Zuckerman (eds.): Modern Europe: Histories and
Identities: Proceedings of the Eleventh Biennial Conference
of the Australasian Association of European Historians, Unley,
SA 1998. Franz Oswald / Maureen Perkins (eds.): Europe - divided
or united?: Proceedings of the twelfth biennial conference of
the Australasian Association for European History, Canberra
2000. |
| [13] |
Christian Leitz (ed.): Writing Europe’s
Pasts: Germany’s Twentieth Century, Special Issue of the
Australian Journal of Politics and History 48 (2002). |
| [14] |
See the Universitas 21 website for more information
on this consortium. http://www.universitas.edu.au/introduction.html |
| [15] |
Contemporary Europe Research Centre website
at http://www.cerc.unimelb.edu.au/ |
| [16] |
National Europe Centre website at http://www.anu.edu.au/NEC/homenec.html |
| [17] |
Centre for European Studies website at http://www.arts.unsw.edu.au/ces/ |
| [18] |
Stephen Wheatcroft (ed.): Genocide, History
and Fictions: Historians Respond to Helen Demidenko/Darville's
The Hand That Signed the Paper, Melbourne University History
Conference Series, Parkville, Victoria 1997. Robert Manne, The
Culture of Forgetting: Helen Demidenko and the Holocaust, Melbourne
1996. For a brief account of the affair in German, see Darren
O'Brien / Richard Tidyman: Der Hohe Preis der Dichtung, in:
Jahrbuch für Antisemitismusforschung 5 (1996), 233-41. |
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Dr. Steven Welch and Prof. Dr. Charles Zika
Department of History
University of Melbourne
Australia
s.welch@unimelb.edu.au
c.zika@unimelb.edu.au
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